Linguistic References

A practical reference to the spatial words used in Metaphors of Movement.

Cardinal and body-relative directions help describe how a person locates experience: above or below, ahead or behind, and to the left or right. Each word can also carry grammatical, social and idiomatic meanings. This page separates those uses so they are easier to compare.

Body-relative spatial directions used throughout this reference page.

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Core directions: Up · Down · Front · Back · Forward · Right · Left

Combined positions: Right forward · Left forward · Right behind · Left behind

Posture and support: Stand · Standing on

Phrasal forms: Back up · Back down

Core spatial words

Up

The word up has several meanings and many uses as a qualifier.

Adverb, preposition, adjective, noun, and verb uses

• Adverb: Movement from a lower to a higher position - "She looked up at the sky."
• Adverb: A higher level or intensity - "Turn the volume up" or "Put prices up."
• Adverb: Into an erect position - "He stood up."
• Adverb: Out of bed - "It's time to get up."
• Adverb: A state of greater activity or excitement - "The crowd got worked up."
• Adverb: Completion - "Drink up," "sup up," "clear up," or "time's up."
• Adverb: A higher position - "Climb up."
• Adverb: In operation - "The system is up."
• Adverb: In preparation - "Suit up."
• Preposition: Toward a higher point on something - "She walked up the hill."
• Adjective: In a raised or elevated position - "The sun is up."
• Adjective: Cheerful or optimistic - "I'm feeling up today."
• Adjective: Awake - "He's up already."
• Adjective: At the end of an allotted period - "Your time is up."
• Noun: A period of good fortune, often used in the plural phrase "ups and downs."
• Verb: To increase or raise - "They will up the price."

Phrasal, idiomatic, and compound uses

• Phrasal verb: "Up and leave" - to do something suddenly, especially to depart.
• Idiomatic: "Up for something" - willing to do it, as in "Are you up for a game?"
• Idiomatic: "What's up?" - an informal greeting meaning "What's happening?"
• Idiomatic: "Keep your head up" - stay alert or remain positive.
• Idiomatic: "Chin up" - do not become depressed or discouraged.
• Idiomatic: "Up to scratch" or "up to the mark" - reaching a prescribed standard.
• Idiomatic: "Up to" - engaged in something or capable of doing it.
• Idiomatic: A higher social position - "Moving up in the world."
• Word formations: uptick, get-up, upgrade, check-up, and informal or vulgar formations such as piss-up and fuck-up.

Down

The word down has various meanings and uses depending on context.

Adverb, preposition, adjective, noun, and verb uses

• Adverb: From a higher to a lower place - "The rain came down."
• Adverb: A decrease to a lower level or value - "The stock market is down."
• Adverb: In a southerly direction - "They drove down to Florida."
• Adverb: In a particular direction - "They drove down the lane," "sailed downstream," "sailed downwind," or "went down the pub."
• Preposition: At a place - "I am down the pub."
• Preposition: From a higher to a lower point of something - "Tears ran down her cheeks."
• Adjective: In a low or lower position - "The shades were down."
• Adjective: Unhappy or depressed - "He's been feeling down."
• Adjective: Not functioning - "The computer is down."
• Noun: Soft, fine feathers - "The pillow is filled with down."
• Verb: To defeat or overcome - "The team downed their rivals."
• Verb: To drink something quickly - "He downed the whole glass of water."

Phrasal and idiomatic uses

• Idiomatic: "Down and out" - without money or resources.
• Idiomatic: "Down to earth" - practical and realistic.
• Phrase: "Down to" meaning including everything - "He was a gentleman down to his boots."
• Phrase: "Down to" meaning reduced to a certain amount - "She was down to her last penny."
• Phrase: "Down to" meaning due to or caused by - "The war was down to Napoleon's ambition."
• Phrase: "Down with" meaning ill with something - "Down with malaria."
• Noun: "A put-down" - a criticism, usually unpleasant.
• Phrasal verb: "Put someone down" - to criticise someone.
• Phrasal verb: "Put down" - to quell by force, as in "Put down a rebellion."
• Phrasal verb: "Put down" - to pay part of a sum, as in "Put down a cash deposit."

Front

The word front has several meanings and uses, often related to a forward or leading position.

Noun, adjective, and verb uses

• Noun: The most forward part of something; the opposite of the back - "The front of the car was damaged."
• Noun: The side of a building containing the main entrance - "The hotel has a beautiful front."
• Noun: A particular area of activity - "How are things on the work front?"
• Noun: In meteorology, the boundary between two air masses - "A cold front is moving in."
• Noun: An outward appearance or demeanour - "She put up a brave front."
• Noun: The road or promenade next to the sea or a lake - "We went for a walk on the front."
• Noun: The line between two armies - "Russia faces Ukraine along a 1,250 km front."
• Noun: A pretended appearance or a cover for another activity - "The sweet shop is a front for drug dealing."
• Noun: A weather phenomenon where warm air meets cold air - "There is a cold front arriving from the west."
• Noun: Part of the name of a political group - "The People's Liberation Front."
• Adjective: Of or situated at the front - "The front page of the newspaper" or "front teeth."
• Verb: To face or have the front toward a particular direction - "The house fronts the lake."
• Verb: To serve as a cover for another activity, often illegal - "The shop fronted a smuggling operation."
• Verb: To lead - "To front an organisation" or "to front the band."

Idiomatic uses

• Idiomatic: "In front of" - in a position forward of something or someone else.
• Idiomatic: "To the forefront" - to a position of importance or prominence.
• Idiomatic: "In the front line" - in an exposed position facing opposition.
• Idiomatic: "Front and centre" - at the heart of something or receiving particular attention.

Back

The word back is versatile and has a variety of meanings and uses.

A spatial word can operate across several linguistic layers.

Noun, adjective, adverb, and verb uses

• Noun: The rear part of a human or animal body from the shoulders to the hips - "My back is sore."
• Noun: The opposite of the front - "Write your name on the back of the paper."
• Noun: A location behind something, in expressions such as "out back," "out the back," and "round the back" - "He is round the back in the garden."
• Noun: A position in games such as rugby and football - "John plays right back, left back, or full back."
• Noun: A part of something that is less often seen or used - "Backstage" or "the back of a carpet."
• Noun: The part of a seat or chair that supports a person's back.
• Noun: A part of a book - "The index is at the back."
• Adverb: Toward the rear - "He stepped back from the edge."
• Adverb: To a previous time, condition, or state - "Traffic is back to normal," "I'll be back at work in an hour," or "I need to set my watch back one hour."
• Adverb: In return - "Pay me back."
• Adverb: In response - "If you leave a message, I'll call back."
• Adverb: Previously - "Years back."
• Adverb: To return to a subject - "To come back to my original question..."
• Adverb: In opposition - "Fight back."
• Adjective: Located at the rear - "The back door."
• Adjective: Overdue - "Back rent."
• Verb: To support, especially financially or with approval - "She will back the new project."
• Verb: To bet on - "I backed a horse in the Grand National. It lost."
• Verb: To move backward - "She backed the car out of the driveway."
• Verb: To provide a back or backing for something - "The sofa is backed with a durable fabric."

Idiomatic and phrasal uses

• Idiomatic: "Behind someone's back" - without that person's knowledge.
• Idiomatic: "To have one's back to the wall" - under pressure with few or no options.
• Idiomatic: "To get on/off someone's back" - to start or stop criticising or pressuring someone.
• Idiomatic: "You scratch my back, I'll scratch yours" - one favour will be returned with another.
• Idiomatic: "To turn your back on" - to abandon or reject someone or something.
• Idiomatic: "Back out" - to withdraw from an agreement.
• Idiomatic: "Back down" - to yield under pressure.
• Idiomatic: "To sit back" - to stop trying or cease taking an active role.
• Idiomatic: "To step back" or "to take a back seat" - to retire from a responsibility.
• Idiomatic: "Back to back" - one after another with no break.
• Idiomatic: "Come back in" - to return to fashion.
• Idiomatic: "To see the back of" - to be rid of someone or to reach the end of something.
• Idiomatic: "To be on the back foot" - to be unprepared or forced to defend.

Forward

Grammatical and idiomatic uses

• Adverb: Toward the front.
• Adjective: Ahead of position.
• Verb: Send onward - "Forward the email."
• Adjective: Bold or presumptuous.
• Noun: Sports position.
• Adjective: Progressive.
• Idioms: "Look forward to," "put your best foot forward."

Right

The word right has several meanings and uses, depending on the context.

Spatial and emphatic use

In the phrase "right next to me," the word "right" is used as an adverb to emphasize proximity. In this context, "right" means "very" or "directly."

Other grammatical, social, and idiomatic uses

• Adjective: Correct or true - "You are right about that."
• Adjective: Morally or socially acceptable - "It's the right thing to do."
• Adjective: Suitable or appropriate - "That's the right tool for the job."
• Adjective: In good or satisfactory condition - "Everything is right in the world."
• Noun: A moral or legal entitlement - "You have the right to remain silent."
• Noun: The right side or direction - "Turn right at the next intersection."
• Adverb: To a great extent - "She's right tired."
• Adverb: Exactly or precisely - "It's right where I left it."
• Adverb: Immediately or directly - "I'll be right back."
• Verb: To correct - "He worked to right the wrongs."
• Adjective: Healthy or functioning properly - "I don’t feel right today."
• Adjective: Most suitable - "She's the right person."
• Adjective (sports): Right-handed orientation - "Right field."
• Adverb: At once - "Call the doctor right away."
• Adverb: To a certain extent - "He's right fond of it."
• Adjective (informal): Very - "A right good book."
• Noun: Political orientation - "The right wing."
• Idiomatic: "Right on" - expression of agreement.

Left

The word left also has multiple meanings.

Grammatical, political, and idiomatic uses

• Adjective: Opposite of right side - "Use your left hand."
• Noun: The left direction - "Turn left."
• Noun: Political orientation - "The left wing."
• Adjective (sports): Left-handed orientation - "Left field."
• Adjective: Remaining - "Time left."
• Verb: Past tense of leave - "She left early."
• Idiomatic: "Out of left field" - unexpected.
• Idiomatic: "Left in the lurch" - abandoned.
• Adjective: Not consumed - "Pizza left."
• Adjective (informal): Clumsy - "He's left with his hands."
• Noun: Last remaining competitor - "Who's left?"
• Idiomatic: "Two left feet" - uncoordinated.
• Idiomatic: "Left hanging" - unresolved.
• Idiomatic: "Left for dead" - abandoned.

Combined positions

Right forward

• Sports position: "Right forward on the team."
• Movement: "Step right forward."
• Dance: "Right forward spin."
• Martial stance: "Right forward strike."
• Mechanical: "Right forward lever."
• Anatomical: "Right forward hip rotation."
• Nautical: "Right forward bow."
• Aviation: "Right forward wing."
• Political: Conservative progress metaphor.
• Engineering: "Right forward motion vector."
• Instructional: "Move right forward to advance."
• Metaphorical: "A right forward step in life."
• Idiomatic: Clear and direct action.

Left forward

• Sports: "He plays left forward."
• Direction: "Step left forward."
• Martial: "Left forward guard."
• Dance: "Left forward step."
• Military: "Advance left forward."
• Driving: "Left forward gear."
• Anatomical: "Left forward lunge."
• Political metaphor: Progressive movement.
• Engineering: "Left forward thrust."
• Aviation: "Left forward fuselage."
• Nautical: "Left forward bow."
• Idiomatic: Advantageous stance.
• Metaphoric: Into the future.

Right behind

• Spatial: "He's right behind you."
• Temporal: "She arrived right behind him."
• Support: "I'm right behind you."
• Sequence: "The car was right behind."
• Loyalty, proximity, leadership, threat, competition, military, emotional, idiomatic, metaphoric examples included.

Left behind

• Literal: "The train left him behind."
• Emotional, progress, relational, spiritual, academic, economic, cultural, idiomatic, physical, existential uses.

Posture and support

Stand

Grammatical and idiomatic uses

• Verb: Be upright.
• Noun: Stance.
• Verb: Endure.
• Noun: Structure - "Lemonade stand."
• Verb: Remain valid.
• Idioms: "Stand by," "stand out," "stand down," "stand for."

Standing on

Spatial, relational, and metaphorical uses

• Physical posture
• Moral basis
• Authority
• Emotional state
• Confidence
• Balance
• Opportunity
• Preparedness
• Religious imagery
• Political stance
• Success
• Temporal moment
• Idiom: "Standing on ceremony."

Phrasal forms

Back up

Meanings and examples

• Noun: An alternative or additional option - "We need a backup plan."
• Verb: To support - "I'll back you up" or "I'll back up your claim."
• Verb: To reverse - "Back up the car."
• Verb: To save data - "Back up your files."
• Verb: To accumulate behind an obstruction - "Traffic is backed up" or "Water is backed up in the drain."
• The expression also appears in mechanical, emotional, legal, physical, and temporal contexts.

Back down

Meanings and examples

• Verb: To yield under pressure or avoid a conflict - "He backed down."
• Verb: To withdraw an argument or challenge - "Back down from a fight."
• Idiomatic: "Never back down" - to show resolve.
• The expression also appears in emotional, legal, negotiation, military, political, workplace, cultural, literary, and procedural contexts.

Studying uses in context

The examples on this page illustrate available uses; their inclusion does not establish how frequent each use is. A corpus study requires a defined collection of texts and decisions about which occurrences count. Stefanowitsch's chapter on metaphor explains why a search for a word must be followed by interpretation of its use in context.

For example, the invented sentences “The parcel is behind the chair” and “The project is behind schedule” give behind different relationships. Recording only the word would discard the information needed to distinguish them. Grammatical role, surrounding phrase and the situation being described all help specify the example.

Metaphor Identification and Corpus Research explains retrieval, annotation and reporting uncertainty. Sensory Metaphor gives a further comparison between vocabulary used within a sensory domain and vocabulary extended to another experience.

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